Engineering according to their cultures.

EGYPTIAN ENGINEERING

The Egyptians have performed some of the greatest engineering works of all time, such as the wall of the city of Memphis. This ancient capital was approximately 19 km north of where Cairo is today. After building the wall, Kanofer, the royal architect of Memphis, had a son whom he called Imhotep, whom historians consider to be the first known engineer. It was his fame more like architect than like engineer, although in its realizations enters elements of the engineering.

Of all the pyramids, that of Pharaoh Cheops was the largest. The Great Pyramid, as it is now known, had 230.4 m per side in the square base and originally measured 146.3 m in height. It contained some 2 300 000 blocks of stone, about 1.1 tonnes on average.

The construction of pyramids was really remarkable, considering that neither the thyme nor the pulley were known. There was no other mechanism than the lever. However, the inclined plane was used, to the extent that one of the prevailing theories of how the pyramids were erected is that inclined planes or ramps were built around the pyramid, until it was buried. Upon reaching the top, he continued the task of digging up the pyramid, which explains that with simple methods, plus an unlimited workforce, produced results difficult to believe. Although other theories affirm that to construct those pyramids with that exactitude, at the moment with our technological advances is impossible so it is believed that at that time they received aid of technologies more advanced than those that exist today. Although they built impressive structures, they only produced few significant innovations in stone construction; His strength was brute strength and size.

MESOPOTAMIC ENGINEERING

Another great culture that flourished alongside water developed in northern Iran, between the Tigris River and the Euphrates. The Greeks called this land Mesopotamia "the land among the rivers". Although Egyptians excelled in the art of stone-building, much of today's science, engineering, religion, and trade come from both Iran and Egypt. At the beginning of the story, a town of unknown origin, the Sumerians, built ramparts for cities and temples and excavated ditches that may have been the world's first engineering achievements. The Sumerians were gradually overcome by considerable immigration of Arab nomads, who became peasants and dudad dwellers. The city of Babylon, which was thus formed, was the seat of a number of imperits of short duration, to be conquered later by the Assyrians.

GREEK ENGINEERING

By 1400 BC, the center of knowledge passed, first to the island of Crete and then to the ancient city of Mycenae, Greece. Their systems of water distribution and irrigation followed the pattern of the Egyptians, but improved materials and labor.

The engineers of this period were better known for their use and development of ideas than for their creativity and inventiveness.

Approximately 440 a. Of J.C., Pendes contracted architects to build temples in the Acropolis, rocky mountain that looked at the city of Athens. A path down the western slope led through an immense portal known as The Propolis, to the top. The marble ceiling beams of this structure were reinforced with wrought iron, which is the first known use of metal as a component in the design of a building.

The stairways leading to the Parthenon, another of the classical buildings of ancient Greece, are not horizontal. The steps are curved upwards, to the center, to give the optical illusion of being horizontal. In the current construction of bridges it is generally taken into account that those curving upwards give an impression of safety, while the horizontal ones seem to be buckling in the center.

ROMAN ENGINEERING

 Roman engineers had more in common with their colleagues from the ancient basin societies of Egypt and Mesopotamia than with the Greek engineers, their predecessors. The Romans used simple principles, the work of slaves and time to produce vast practical improvements for the benefit of the Roman Empire. In comparison with the Greeks, Roman contributions to science were limited; However, they did abound in soldiers, leaders, administrators and notable jurists. The Romans applied much of what had preceded them, and perhaps they can be judged as the best engineers of antiquity. What they lacked in originality made up for it in the vast application of an expanding empire.

For the most part, Roman engineering was civil, especially in the design and construction of permanent works such as aqueducts, roads, bridges and public buildings. One exception was military engineering, and another smaller, for example, galvanization. An interesting innovation of the architects of that time was the reinvention of indirect central domestic heating, which had originally been used about 1200 BC. Of J.C. in Beycesultan, Turkey. The original invention occurred "when due to the lack of communications and protection of patents, important inventions sometimes had to be reinvented before they became a permanent part of the technology.But, it is quite strange that after the fall of the Roman Empire Indirect central heating will not appear again until modern times.

One of the great triumphs of public construction during this period was the Coliseum, which was the largest public meeting place until the construction of the Yale Bowl in 1914.

Roman engineers made significant improvements in road construction, mainly for two reasons: one, that communication was believed to be essential to preserve one expanding empire, and the other, because it was believed that a well-constructed road would last long with A minimum of maintenance. Roman roads are known to last up to a hundred years before they needed major repairs. It is only recently that road construction has returned to the base of "high initial cost - little maintenance".

The Roman aqueducts were built following essentially the same design, which used semicircular stone arches mounted on a row of pillars. When an aqueduct crossed a glen, it often required multiple levels of arches. One of the best preserved today is the Pont du Gard in Nimes, France, which has three levels. The lower level also had a road.

The Romans used lead pipes and then began to suspect they were unhealthy. However, lead poisoning was not diagnosed specifically until Benjamin Franklin wrote a letter in 1768 regarding its use.

Roman engineering declined after 100 d. Of J.C., and their progress was modest. A factor believed to have contributed to the fall of the Roman Empire, about 476 AD. Was that while Roman science and engineering had stalled during this period, it was not so with the barbarians of the north. Another factor that slowed growth in science and engineering was laws in effect about 301 d. And that Diocletian pretended to be reforms to the control of prices and wages, and laws that forced every man of the empire to follow the office of his father. This was done, at least in part, in the hope of providing economic stability.

An innovation during this period was the invention of public lighting in the city of Antioch, about the year 3 ~ 0 d. Of J.C.

EASTERN ENGINEERING

After the fall of the Roman Empire, engineering development moved to India and China. The ancient Hindus were skilled in the handling of iron and possessed the secret to make good steel from before the time of the Romans. Austria and India were the two main steel centers when the Roman Empire was at its height. Later, Syrian smiths used Indian steel ingots in Damascus to forge the leaves of damask swords. He was one of the few truly superior steels of the time. For some two centuries, the world capital of science was Jundishapur, India.

Approximately 700 d. A Mesopotamian monk named Severus Sebokht made known to western civilization the Indian numerical system, which has since been called Arabic numerals.

One of the greatest achievements of all time was the Great Wall of China. The distance from one end to the other of the wall is approximately 2404 km; However, there are more than 4 080 km of wall in total. Almost the entire wall is approximately 10 m high, 8 m thick at the base, and is reduced up to approximately 5 m at the top. Along this part runs a paved road.

The wall has 25 000 towers in its main part and another 15 000 towers separated from the main wall. His height was not enough to prevent the invaders from climbing, but they had to leave their horses in front of it. Without horses, they could not face the local guards who were mounted, so that more often, the invaders were already happy to be able to return to where their mounts awaited them. China has had channels for thousands of years. Most of them have the right size for irrigation, but not for navigation, in addition to that at that time the locks were not known. They used gates, but they had limited value. After 3000 years, the length of the Chinese irrigation system is more than 320 000 km. The longest canal, the Yunho or Grand Canal, is 1,920 km and runs from Tientsin to Hangchow; Its construction required a thousand years. This is one of those examples of oriental determination and patience with no time limit.

The Chinese developed gear machinery from very old dates. Some historians believe that around 400 BC. Of J.C., there were gears in China. The Chinese were the first to invent escape mechanisms for watches. Towards 1500 d. Of J.C., Peter Henlein of Nuremberg, Germany, invented the rope watch. Maximilian I of Bavaria joked around 1800: "If you want to be in trouble, buy a watch." The first small clocks measured about what a current alarm clock, hung from a chain and had only one hand.

EUROPEAN ENGINEERING

The Middle Ages, which is sometimes referred to as the medieval period, ranged from approximately 500 to 1500 AD. Of J.C., but usually it is denominated Darkness to the period that mediates between the year 600 and the 1000 d. Of J.C. During this period the professions of engineer or architect did not exist, so that these activities remained in the hands of the craftsmen, such as the masons masons. The Dark Ages literature was predominantly religious in nature, and those who held power did not attach importance to science and engineering. The feudal rulers were conservative, and above all they tried to maintain the state of affairs. Most people should have the same office as their parents. However, a number of important scientific discoveries in engineering and mathematics occurred in the 1500s, suggesting that although science was downplayed, a revolution in reasoning was taking place in relation to the nature and activity of science. matter. Movement, force and gravity received considerable attention in the middle ages and beyond.